guidelines_for_word_formation
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# General guidelines
Words should be:
- as internationally recognisable (within the Germanic world) and/or frequent as possible - not confusable with other words - ideally, not false friends - structurally simple
# Concrete guidelines
## Proto-Germanic to Folksprak
| \[pg\]-gramm | \[fs\]-gramm | remarks/examples |
|---|---|---|
| _\*b_ | b \[b\] at the beginning of a syllable | _\*baunō_ > boen \[bøːn\], _\*brōþēr_ > broder \[ˈbroːdər\] |
| _\*ƀ_ | v \[v\] at the end of a syllable | _\*weƀaną_ > wéve \[ʋeːvə\], Can be bb \[b\] if the consonant was geminated or _\*ƀj_, _\*reƀja_ > ribb \[rɪb\] |
| _\*w_ | w \[ʋ\] at the beginning of a syllable | _\*wīdaz_ > wid \[ʋiːd\] |
| _\*w_ | w \[w\] or \[ʊ\] at the end of a syllable | Inter-vocally is \[w\], at the end of a word makes a \[ʊ\] diphthong with the stem vowel, _grǣwaz_ > graw \[graʊ\], _\*snaiwaz_ > snéw \[sneːʊ\] |
| _\*sk_ | sh \[ʃ\] in almost all cases | _\*skamō_ > sham \[ʃaːm\], _\*fiskaz_ > fish \[fɪʃ\] |
| _\*h_ | h \[h\] at the beginning of a syllable | _\*handuz_ > hand \[hand\] |
| _\*h_ | h \[x\] at the end of syllable | This is the commonest evolution, _\*nahts_ > naht \[naxt\], _\*hauhaz_ > hoeh \[høːx\] |
| _\*h_ | j \[j\] or \[ɪ\] at the end of syllable, sometimes evolves to j | Inter-vocally is \[j\], at the end of a word becomes \[ɪ\] and combines as a diphthong with the stem vowel, _\*þleuhan_ > flyje \[ˈflyːjə\], _\*slahaną_ > slaje \[ˈslaːjə\], _\*tehun_ > tejn \[teɪn\] |
| _\*hw_ | w \[ʋ\] at the beginning of a syllable | _\*hwar_ > war \[ʋaːr\] |
| _\*hw_ | j \[j\] or \[ɪ\] at the end of a syllable | Inter-vocally is \[j\], at the end of a word becomes \[ɪ\] and combines as a diphthong with the stem vowel, _\*sehwaną_ > seje \[ˈseːjə\], _\*taihwō_ > tej \[teɪ\] |
| _\*hr_ | r \[r\] at the beginning of a syllable | _\*hringaz_ > ring \[rɪŋ\], At the end of a syllable is -jr \[-ɪr\] and combines as a diphthong with the stem vowel: _\*tahrą_ > tajr \[taɪr\] |
| _\*hl_ | l \[l\] | _\*hlahjaną_ > lahe \[ˈlaːxə\], At the end of a syllable is -jl \[-ɪl\] and combines as a diphthong with the stem vowel: _\*hanhilō_ > hejl \[heɪl\] |
| _\*g_ | g \[g\] at the beginning of a syllable | This is also the most common evolution in other positions of the syllable – but see below, _\*geƀaną_ > géve \[ˈgeːve\], _\*dagaz_ > dag \[daːg\] |
| _\*g_+_\*j_ | gg \[g\] | _\*brugjō_ > brygg \[brʏg\] |
| _\*g_ | j \[j\] or \[ɪ\] at the end of a syllable | This only happens when the majority of the source languages have lost the _\*g_, but it’s still retained by a minority or retained in some cognate words, Inter-vocally is \[j\], at the end of a word makes a +\[ɪ\] diphthong with the stem vowel, _\*seglam_ > sejl \[seɪl\], _\*magaþiz_ > majd \[maid\] |
| _\*þ_ | t \[t\] at the beginning of a syllable | _\*þrǣduz_ > trad \[traːd\], _\*þankōną_ > tanke \[ˈtaŋkə\] |
| _\*þ_ | d \[d\] at the end of a syllable | _\*baþą_ > bad \[baːd\], _\*erþō_ > érd \[ɛrd\] |
| _\*þ_ | d \[d\] sometimes at the beginning of syllable | This is mostly in pronouns, articles, and some particles/adverbs, This is when _\*þ_ evolves to d \[d\] in Scandinavian languages and to voiced th \[ð\] in English, Whether the cognate is voiced in English and/or Scandinavian is the deciding factor here, _\*þauh_ > doh \[doːh\], _\*þū_ > du \[duː\] |
| _\*f_ | f \[f\] at the start of syllables | _\*fadēr_ > fader \[ˈfaːdər\] |
| _\*f_ | v \[v\] at the end of syllables | _\*hōfaz_ > hov \[hoːv\], If it is geminated or _\*f_+_\*j_, then becomes ff \[f\] |
| _\*ī_ | i \[iː\] | _\*rīdaną_ > ride \[ˈriːdə\], _\*hwītaz_ wit \[ʋiːt\] |
| _\*ō_ | o \[oː\] | _\*blōdam_ > blod \[bloːd\], _\*mōþar_ > moder \[ˈmoːdər\] |
| _\*ū_ | u \[uː\] | _\*hūsą_ > hus \[huːs\], _\*rūhaz_ > ruj \[ruːɪ\] |
| _\*ǣ_ | a \[aː\] | _\*dǣdiz_ > dad \[daːd\], _\*ǣlaz_ > al \[aːl\] |
| _\*ai_ | é \[eː\] | É in stressed syllables is optionally written with a acute accent, This is to disambiguate it from e used as a schwa \[ə\], It should written with an acute accent in dictionaries and language learning materials, In normal writing, intended for fluent readers, it can be left off, _\*haimaz_ > hém \[heːm\], _\*dailijan_ > déle \[deːlə\] |
| _\*au_ | oe \[øː\] | _\*baunō_ > boen \[bøːn\], _\*hauƀudą_ > hoeved \[ˈhøːvəd\] |
| _\*eu_ | y \[yː\] | _\*deupaz_ > dyp \[dyːp\], _\*freusaną_ > fryse \[ˈfryːsə\] |
| _\*a_ | a, \[a\] or \[aː\] short or long depending on following geminated consonants | _\*strandaz_ > strand \[strand\], _\*hwalaz_ > wal \[ʋaːl\] |
| _\*e_ | é, \[ɛ\] or é \[eː\] short or long depending on following geminated consonants | _\*wegaz_ > wég \[ʋeːg\], _\*sternan_, _\*sterran_ > stérr \[stɛr\] |
| _\*e_ | i \[ɪ\] if the majority of source languages show i-mutation and if the following consonants are geminated | _\*lepjōn_ » lipp \[lɪp\], _\*senn_, _\*senþ-_ > sinn \[sɪn\] |
| _\*u_ | u, \[ʊ\] or o \[ɔ\] or o \[oː\] short or long depending on following geminated consonants | Short versions change to o if the majority of source languages do, _\*under_ > under \[ˈʊndər\], _\*hurnaz_ > horn \[hɔrn\], _\*uƀer_ > over \[ˈoːvər\] |
| _\*a_ | é \[ɛ\] or é \[eː\] if the majority of source languages show i-mutation | _\*wadjōną_ > wédde \[ˈʋɛdə\], _\*bazjan_ > bére \[ˈbeːrə\] |
| _\*u_ | y \[ʏ\] or y \[yː\] if the majority of source languages show i-mutation, long or short depending if the following consonants are geminated | _\*hrugjaz_ > rygg \[rʏg\], _\*uƀilaz_ > yvel \[ˈyːvəl\] |
| _\*ō_ | oe \[øː\] if the majority of the source languages show i-mutation | WG _\*grōnja-_ > groen \[grøːn\], WG _\*fōljan_ > foele \[ˈføːlə\] |
| _\*ū_ | y \[yː\] if the majority of the source languages show i-mutation | _\*kūhska_, _\*kūhski_ > kysh \[kʏʃ\], WG _\*fūir_ > fyr \[fyːr\] |
| _\*ǣ_ | ae \[ɛː\] if the majority of the source languages show i-mutation | Latin _caseus_ WG _\*kǣsjus_ > kaes \[kɛːs\], _\*fǣgjan_ > faege \[ˈfɛːgə\] |
| _\*a_, _\*e_, _\*i_, _\*o_, _\*u_ etc. in unstressed syllables generalize to e \[ə\] or are lost altogether | Whether to drop an unstressed vowel or retain it is generally determined by what has occurred in the majority of the source languages | _\*ga-nōga_ > genog \[gəˈnoːg\], _\*augōn_ > oege \[ˈøːgə\] _\*haƀukaz_ > havek \[ˈhaːvək\], _\*hōraz_ > hor \[hoːr\] |
## Latin, Græco-Latin, Romance and French to Folksprak
Guidelines for bringing Romance internationalisms into Folksprak.
Generally based on the Interlingua or French form.
The form of most of the consonants are retained and are pronounced as they are spelled, but with the following changes applied.
The form of most of the vowels are retained and are pronounced as they are spelled – the vowel length is long or short depending on whether the following consonant is singular or a cluster, but with the following changes applied.
| \[xx\]-gramm | \[fs\]-gramm | remarks/examples |
|---|---|---|
| _\*c_ not before e, i, y | k \[k\] | _cablo_ > kabel \[ˈkaːbəl\], _directe_ > dirékt \[dɪˈrɛkt\] |
| _\*c_ before æ, e, i, y | c \[ʦ\] | _cemento_ > cemént \[ʦɛˈmɛnt\], _decembre_ > decémber \[dɛˈʦɛmbər\]. A word final _\*c_ is not possible, so the normal solution is that if any of the source languages pronouce an extra vowel after the _\*c_ in their cognates, then a final e \[ə\] should be added: ekscellénce \[ɛksʦɛˈlɛnʦə\] not ekscellénc If none of the source languages have an extra vowel, then _\*c_ should be changed to s \[s\]: dans \[dans\] not danc. |
| _\*-ti-_ before another vowel | -ci- \[-ʦj-\] | _station_ > stacion \[staˈʦjoːn\], _absentia_ > abséncie \[abˈsɛnʦjə\], _patiente_ > paciént \[paˈʦjɛnt\] |
| _\*ch_ (Græco-Latin chi) | k \[k\] | _character_ > karakter \[kaˈraktər\], _technica_ > teknik \[tɛkˈniːk\] |
| _\*ch_ (French/Spanish ch) | sh \[ʃ\] | French _revanche_ > revansh \[rɛˈvanʃ\], _chance_ > shance \[ˈʃanʦə\], _broche_ > brosh \[brɔʃ\] |
| _\*g_ (French soft g before e, i, y) | gj \[ʒ\] | This only happens when the majority of the source languages have changed the pronunciation from the default for g. So normally the English cognate will have \[ʤ\] and the German cognate with have \[ʒ\]. _gesto_ > gjéste \[ˈʒɛstə\], _bagage_ > bagagje \[baˈgaʒə\] |
| _\*ph_ (Græco-Latin phi) | f \[f\] | _photographo_ > fotograf \[fɔtɔˈgraːf\] |
| _\*th_ (Græco-Latin theta) | t \[t\] | _theatro_ > teater \[tɛˈaːtər\]. _apotheca_ > apoték \[apɔˈteːk\] |
| _\*x_ | ks \[ks\] | _luxo_ > lukse \[ˈlʊksə\], _extreme_ > ekstrém \[ɛksˈtreːm\] |
| _\*qu_ | kw \[kʋ\] | _quadrato_ > kwadrat \[kʋaˈdraːt\], _adequate_ > adekwat \[adɛˈkʋaːt\] |
| _\*que_ (French que) | k \[k\] | When French _que_ is used to designate a \[k\] sound before a _e_ or _i_, then is changed to k \[k\]. French _banquet_ > bankétt \[baŋˈkɛt\], French _liqueur_ > likoer \[lɪˈkøːr\] |
| _\*u_ (French u) | y \[ʏː\] or \[yː\], long or short depending on following consonants (single or clusters) | This only happens when the majority of the source languages have adopted the French pronunciation and assimilated it to their native orthography. In more cases _\*u_ > u \[ʊ\] or \[uː\]. Fr _brusque_ > brysk \[brʏsk\], Fr _brochure_ > broshyre \[brɔˈʃyːrə\] |
| _\*é_ (French é) | éé \[eː\] only in a word final position | Fr _cliché_ > klishéé \[klɪˈʃeː\]. Fr _allée_ > alléé \[aˈleː\] |
| _\*ai_ (French ai) | ae \[ɛː\] generally when changed to ä and æ in German and Scandinavian, the cognate in Folksprak will have ae | Note that the English cognate may have ea or ai, and the Dutch ei, e or ai: Fr _déta_ > detael \[dɛˈtɛːl\], Fr _portrait_ > portraet \[pɔrˈtrɛːt\], Fr _saison_ > saeson \[sɛːˈzoːn\]. Fr _fontaine_ > fontaen \[fɔnˈtɛːn\] |
| _\*eu_ (French eu) > oe \[øː\] | This applies only to French eu. Græco-Latin eu remains as eu | Fr _régisseur_ > regjissoer \[rɛʒɪˈsøːr\]. Fr _sérieux_ > serioes \[sɛrɪˈøːs\]. Fr _adieu_ > adioe \[adˈjøː\] |
| _\*ou_ (French ou) | u \[uː\] or \[ʊ\] depending on following consonants (single or clusters) | Fr _douche_ > dush \[dʊʃ\]. Fr _tour_ > tur \[tuːr\]. Fr _limousine_ > limusin \[lɪmʊˈsiːn\]. |
| _\*eu_ (Græco-Latin eu) | eu \[ɛʊ\] | Unlike French _\*eu_, Græco-Latin _\*eu_ remains unchanged: _neurologo_ > neurolog \[nɛʊrɔˈloːg\]. _Europa_ > Europa \[ɛʊˈroːpa\] |
| _\*æ_ (Græco-Latin æ) | é \[eː\] or \[ɛ\] depending on following consonants (single or clusters) | Unlike German and Danish, but like American English, Dutch and Swedish, Græco-Latin _\*æ_ merges with é. L _præcisus_ > _precise_ > precis \[prɛˈʦiːs\]. Latin _æra_ > _era_ > éra \[ˈeːra\] |
| _\*a_ (from Latin _\*-tas_, _\*-tatem_) | ae \[ɛː\] | Latin _universitas/universitatem_ > _universitate_ > universitaet \[ʊnɪvɛrsɪˈtɛːt\]. L _qualitas/qualitatem_ > _qualitate_ > kwalitaet \[kʋalɪˈtɛːt\] |
| _\*a_ (from Latin \*-alis) | a \[aː\] | Latin _actualis_ > _actual_ > aktual \[aktʊˈaːl\], Latin _realis_ > _real_ > real \[rɛˈaːl\] |
| _\*-ar_, _\*-er_, _\*-ir_ (from Latin -are and other Romance verb infinitive suffixes) | -aer- \[-ˈɛːr-\] | _diriger_ > dirigaere \[dɪrɪˈgɛːrə\], _nivellar_ > nivellaere \[nɪvɛˈlɛːrə\] |
## German to Folksprak
| \[de\]-gramm | \[fs\]-gramm | examples |
|---|---|---|
| _-ö-_ | ö or sometimes e | _hören_ > höre, _schön_ > skön, _zwölf_ > tvelv |
| _-ü-_ | ö,ü or sometimes u | _grün_ > grön, _Küste_ > küst, _müssen_ > mute |
| _-au-_ | u, ö, o | _Haus_ > hus, _Haupt_ > hövd, _auch_ > ok |
| _-eu-_ | ü | _neu_ > nü, _deutsch_ > dütisk |
| _-ei-_ | i or sometimes e | _Eis_ > is, _mein_ > min, _frei_ > fri, _ein(e)_ > en |
| _sch-$-_ | sk-$ | _schulden_ > skulde, _scheren_ > skere |
| _sch-&-_ | s-& | _schwarz_ > svart, _Schwamm_ > svam |
| _-sch-_, _-sch_ | sk | _herrschen_ > herske, _dänisch_ > danisk |
| _-chs_, _-chs-_ | ks | _Fuchs_ > fuks, _sechs_ > seks, _Ochse_ > oks |
| _-ch_ | k, g | _ich_ > ek, _Buch_ > buk, _hoch_ > hog |
| _-ch-_ | k, g or elimination | _machen_ > make, _Specht_ > spegt, _nicht_ > nit |
| _z-_, _-z-_, _-z_, _-tz-_, _-tz_ | t | _Zahl_ > tal, _Holz_ > holt, _Katze_ > kat, _Netz_ > net |
| _-ss-_, _-ß_ | t | _hassen_ > hate, _müssen_ > mute, _groß_ > grot |
| _w-_, _-w-_ | v | _wollen_ > vile, _Wolf_ > volf, _zwei_ > tve |
| _-b-_ | v | _haben_ > have, _leben_ > leve |
| _-f-_ | p | _auf_ > up, _helfen_ > helpe |
## English to Folksprak
Since modern English has a very unphonetical orthography (due to various reasons), the following transitions are not as “typical” as they are for “German to Folksprak” or “Bokmål to Folksprak”. They are rather considered as _possible_ transitions.
| \[en\]-gramm | \[fs\]-gramm | examples |
|---|---|---|
| _e(e)_ | i | _we_ > vi, _free_ > fri |
| _ea_ | e | _instead_ > insted |
| _oo_ | u | _good_ > gud, _blood_ > blud, _room_ > rum |
| _ou_ | u | _group_ > grup, _out_ > ut, _our_ > ur, _round_ > rund |
| _w(h)_ | v | _water_ > vater, _to will_ > vile, _white_ > vit, _what_ > vat |
| _th_ | d | _that_ > dat, _there_ > der, _the_ > de |
| _c_ | k | _to can_ > kane, _to come_ > kome |
| _sh_ | sk or sometimes s | _fish_ > fisk, _shoe_ > sku, _shall_ > skal |
## Norwegian (Bokmål) to Folksprak
| \[nb\]-gramm | \[fs\]-gramm | examples |
|---|---|---|
| _å_ | o or sometimes u | _å gå_ > goe, _nå_ > no |
| _o_ | u | _for_ > fur, _blod_ > blud, _å troe_ > true |
| _y_ | i or sometimes u | _syve_ > siv, _ny_ > nu, _å frykte_ > fruke |
| _ø_ | o | _død_ > dod, _å høre_ > hore |
| _æ_ | e | _å lære_ > lere |
guidelines_for_word_formation.1590924715.txt.gz · Last modified: 2020/05/31 13:31 by fenris
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